The Usefulness Of Titration And Colorimetric Analysis

The Usefulness Of Titration And Colorimetric Analysis As a child I was reasoned into taking vitamin supplements as they would make me grow tall and strong. Micronutrients like vitamin C are an empirical base to the formula for maintaining a healthy and balanced body, vitamin C for example has proven to be fundamentally responsible for the regeneration of our teeth, bones, teeth and skin. Moreover its unique regenerative properties have made it a key component of several pharmaceutical products that treat disease that were once thought incurable, namely scurvy. Its biological significance adequately highlights the importance given to its estimation, but one must not forget its chemical relevance. Vitamin C has proven its chemical significance both as an antioxidant and a stabiliser for to the vitamin B complex, two applications where the amount of ascorbate is of the upmost importance. As part of a tenth grade science fair project I went about determining the concentration of vitamin C in freshly squeezed orange juice. The means of volum etric analysis I used to determine the concentration of vitamin C was simple acid-base titration. I titrated vitamin C against a known quantity of analyte sodium hydroxide. The results I was left with did not successfully reflect the literature values; in fact I was far off. For years practising chemists have attempted to develop an analytical procedure that is simple to operate, rapid, accurate, sensitive and selective and consequently a large number of procedures have sprouted with diverging capabilities  [1]  . My decision to carry out the following investigation has arisen from the errors present whilst using acid-base titration, as a means of volumetric analysis for vitamin C, and a wish to analyse the varying procedures that have arisen in recent years for vitamin C estimation. I have conducted the following investigation with the following research question in mind: How far do colorimetric readings agree with the results acquired through red-ox titration, a means of volumetric analysis, for the amount, in mg, of ascorbic acid in 100g of 3 different cultivars of Brassica oleracea obtained from a local supermarket? Background Information: Vitamin C Vitamin C or ascorbic acid is a water soluble vitamin that occurs naturally in citrus fruits, leafy vegetables, berries, tomatoes and several other plant sources. It has several beneficial properties that play an imperative role in our bodys internal chemistry and therefore consistent intake of this organic molecule is of the upmost importance. Vitamin Cs primary role involves helping in the production of collagen a key component in connective tissues such the ligaments, tendons, skin, bones, cartilage, and blood vessels. Along with its biological significance, Vitamin Cs unique structure has also made it chemically vital. Note: one could generalise and say that ascorbic acid and vitamin C are synonyms for each other; Vitamin C is in fact an L- enantiomer of ascorbic acid. An enantiomer is a compound whose molecular structure is not super imposable on its mirror image. The L signifies one of two forms of optical isomers, the second being D-form. Such specifications are irrelevant to this extended essay as the physical and chemical properties of two enantiomers of a chiral compound such as ascorbic acid are identical as long as they do not react with other optically active substances. Therefore for the purpose of simplifying this essay I have used the terms Vitamin C and ascorbic acid interchangeably. Vitamin C has an appearance ranging from a whitey to light yellowy powder. A typical molecule of this sugar-acid is composed of 6 carbon, 6 oxygen and 8 hydrogen atoms; this arrangement can be seen below: File:L-Ascorbic acid.svg Figure Ascorbic acid structure  [2]   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/L-ascorbic-acid-3D-balls.png Figure Ascorbic acid 3-D structure  [3]   Strictly speaking vitamin C is the enolic  [4]  form of 3-oxo-L-gulofuranolactone. Most enols are unstable and therefore are quickly de-protonated to form an enolate ion, shown in the centre of figure 1: http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ascorbic_acidity3.png/500px-Ascorbic_acidity3.png Figure Transfer of electron pairs in ascorbic acid  [5]   Figure Distribution of Electrons in enolate ion  [6]   In the case of vitamin C it can further lose a proton as shown on figure 1 to the adjacent double bond, in turn stabilising the enolate ion. The transfer of electrons between the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups and the existence of two resonance structures for the negative enolate ion are also characteristic of a vinylogous carboxylic acid.  [7]  It is important to note that vitamin C is a reducing agent (electron donor) and has a standard electrode potential of 0.08V. It is also water soluble because of the numerous hydroxyl groups that are found in its structure and can therefore form hydrogen bond with water molecules. Redox reactions For this investigation the effectiveness of colorimetry and titration will be explored by means of redox reactions in acidic media. This family of reactions is fundamentally concerned with the transferral of electrons between the species in a chemical system. Like acid-base reactions this family of reactions is antagonistic in nature, they occur in opposing pairs i.e. every reduction is accompanied by an oxidation reaction and vice versa. A Redox reaction is often characterised by the loss and subsequent gain in oxygen between two species in a system for example: Copper (II) oxide + Hydrogen = Copper + water CuO (s) + H2 (g) = Cu + H2O (g) In this case since copper oxide is losing oxygen, it is being reduced and subsequently one could say hydrogen is being oxidised into water due to the gain of oxygen. Similarly we could suggest that Hydrogen is the reducing agent as it takes oxygen away and copper oxide is the oxidizing agent since it gives away oxygen. Similarly a gain in hydrogen characterises a reduced species and a loss in hydrogen characterises an oxidised species. Yet not all redox reactions will involve oxygen, the reaction between sodium and chloride is redox in nature yet there are no molecules of oxygen involved. This gives a second set of definitions for redox reactions: If a species loses one or more electrons during a reaction it has been oxidised(oxidation), and if it gains electrons it has been reduced(reduction) A species removing electrons is an oxidising agent( species itself is reduced), and if a species donates electrons it is a reducing agent( species itself is oxidised) Note: In several chemical reactions the aforementioned transferral of electrons may never actually happen and because of this reason a more accurate description of oxidation is, an increase in the oxidation number of a species and therefore a reduction is defined as a decrease in the oxidation number of a species.  [8]   Redox reactions can be broken down into half equations to demonstrate the transferral: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Redox_Halves.png Figure Half equations  [9]   Experiment 1 Though colorimetry is being tested here, the principle reaction here is a redox reaction taking place between ascorbic acid and acidified Potassium permanganate. In its oxidised state Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is a purple crystallised structure. Considering it is a very strong oxidising agent, acidified KMnO4 (aq) was used as the oxidising titrant in this red-ox titration. In an acidic environment  [10]  it readily oxidises ascorbic acid consequently being reduced to Manganese (II) ions from its Manganate (VII) oxidised state. Half equation: Through our experimentation it was found that generally speaking the red-ox reaction harbours a decrease in the intensity of the purple inclining me to believe that eventually the solution would become colourless as all Manganate ions would be transformed into Manganese ions. This colour change was detected as an increase in transmittance, for successive concentrations of ascorbic acid by a colorimeter set to 565nm  [11]  . This positive correlation is evident on the trend lines presented on graphs 2 and 3. Yet one must account for the so to say false drops in transmittance. The drop can be explained by the formation of MnO2 particles which give the solution a dark brownish colour: Eventually the MnO2 particles precipitate under the influence of the sulphuric acid, allowing for the trend to continue. This phenomenon is further explained in the appendix. One should also note the fact that MnO4 has a standard electrode potential of 1.51V and considering that vitamin C has a lower one there is sure to be an effective redox reaction. Sulphuric acid Sulphuric plays a more significant role than simply providing the acidic conditions for the relevant redox reactions. Ascorbic acid itself is a weak acid and therefore would undergo a neutralisation reaction if it were in a basic environment (a pH higher than 7). It would thereafter be oxidised and the resulting product dehydroascorbic acid, would undergo a hydrolysis reaction due to the alkalinity of the solution. The ester bonds in Vitamin C would consequently break thus the degradation of vitamin C:  [12]   vitamin C decomposition Figure Degradation of Vitamin C  [13]   Furthermore sulphuric acid helps delay the spontaneous oxidation of ascorbic acid brought about by atmospheric conditions by providing a protective layer. Colorimetry A colorimeter measures the colour intensity of a sample in terms of the red, blue, and green components of light reflected from the solution. The instrument operates on the basis of Beer-Lamberts law  [14]  which states that the absorption of light transmitted through a species is directly proportional to the concentration of that species. Effectively we are measuring what fraction of a beam of light passing through a sample reaches a detector on the other side of the sample. The coloured analyte (species being studied) may absorb photons in the beam of light thus reducing the number of photons in the beam of light leaving the solution. The number of photons detected gives a value of the % transmittance which is the independent variable in this part of the investigation. A calibrated chart for known concentrations of ascorbic acid vs. %Transmittance was made to help identify unknown concentrations of ascorbic acid in different assays with respect to measured %transmittances. Iodometry The redox reaction between iodine and ascorbic acid can be used to calculate the amount of ascorbic acid in the cultivars of Brassica oleracea. The pre-prepared solution was made on the basis of this reaction: KIO3 (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) + 5 I- (aq) â‚ ¬Ã‚  3 I2 (aq) + 3 H2O (l) + K+ (aq) As we can see iodine solution can be acquired through this reaction. The iodine is quickly reduced into its iodide ion in the presence of ascorbic acid. The ascorbic in turn is oxidised into dehydroascorbic acid: Figure oxidation of ascorbic acid  [15]   Once the ascorbic acid has all been oxidised, iodine will remain in excess. As the iodine molecules build up they will react with the iodine ions to form a blue-black complex with the starch, marking the end-point of the titration. These are the relevant redox half equations: I2 + Reduction half reaction for Iodine at a slightly acidic pH Oxidation half reaction for vitamin-C (C6H8O6) at a slightly acidic pH Final redox reaction : C6H8O6(aq) + I2(aq) C6H6O6(aq) + 2 I- (aq) + 2 H+(aq) (ascorbic acid) (dehydroascorbic acid) Preparing potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution: Precisely fill a 1 litre Erlenmeyer flask with 600cm3 (600ml) of distilled water Measure out 4g of crushed potassium permanganate crystals, which are to be added into the Erlenmeyer flask containing the distilled water Swirl the solution until all the KMnO4 has dissolved and an intense purple solution has been formed. Preparing standardised solutions of ascorbate: Pipette 5ml of 1M sulphuric acid into each of the test-tubes Carefully Pour 100 ml of distilled water in each of the test-tubes and seal them with a bung Place all the test-tubes in some form of refrigerated unit to delay the ascorbic acid from being oxidised Calculating calibration chart: Set up your data logging equipment and set your colorimeter so that a a green LED light of wavelength 565nm is transmitted across cuvettes Pipette 3ml of distilled water into a fresh cuvette and calibrate the colorimeter to the transmittance through distilled water is a 100% Pour 30 ml of the pre-prepared potassium permanganate solution into a 200 ml beaker containing 50 ml of distilled water Pipette 3ml of the 30ml KMnO4 (aq) into two fresh cuvettes Place these cuvettes one after another into the colorimeter Measure the transmittances for 12 seconds and record them as trial 1 and 2 for the transmittance for when no ascorbic acid is present Thoroughly clean and dry the 200ml beaker and thereafter carefully pour into it, 30ml of the pre-prepared potassium permanganate solution Remove test-tube 1 (containing 0.009 grams of ascorbic acid) and pour the contents into the 200ml beaker containing KMnO4 (aq) After allowing the acidified red-ox reaction to continue for 5 minutes pipette 3ml of the product twice into two different cuvettes Place the cuvettes one after the other into the colorimeter, set to wavelength 565nm, and record the respective transmittances for test tube 1 as trial 1 and 2 Repeat steps 14-17 for each test-tube thus retaining transmittance values for all the different quantities of ascorbic acid Plot a suitable calibration chart for the average of the two trials of each sample Extracting Vitamin C from cultivars of Brassica oleracea: Collect the necessary apparatus and clean it Set a hot plate to 50 degrees centigrade and place a beaker with 100 ml water and a thermometer on it Measure out 100g of Cabbage and place them in a beaker Once the water has reached 50 degrees remove the beaker of water from the hot plate and switch it with the beaker of leaves Leaves the leaves on the hot plate for 5 minutes to slow down the action of ascorbic acid oxidase Cut the sample of cabbage as much as possible to facilitate the grinding Note: Try to perform neat cuts so as to not release too much ascorbic acid oxidase which would obscure the results Add 5ml (as with the standardised solutions) of sulphuric acid to the leaves, add some sand to help make the grinding of the leaves easier Grind the mixture using a mortar and pester until an homogenate state is achieved ( you may add 10 ml of water to help achieve the homogenate state faster but this could obscure your results considering vitamin C is water soluble and it must be added before adding the acid) The homogenate mixture produced can now be filtered through the Mira cloth into a 200ml measuring beaker as shown in Appendix To attain maximum yield you may squeeze the Mira cloth to squeeze out any remaining fluid into the measuring cylinder, yet ensure that you have precisely 50 ml of the filtered liquid present in the measuring cylinder Note: ensure that 50 ml is present in each of the measuring cylinders regardless of the source Precisely dilute the filtrate to a 100 ml, seal the beaker and refrigerate it Steps 20- 30 will have to repeated for each cultivar so that you will end up with 3 beakers, each with an equal volume of the respective vegetable filtrate solution Analysing cultivars for Vitamin C: Repeat steps 8 and 9 Pour 30ml of the aqueous potassium permanganate into a 200ml beaker Remove the cabbage filtrate from the fridge and pour it into the 200ml beaker containing KMnO4(aq) Allow the reaction to proceed for 5 minutes Pipette 3ml of this mixture twice, into two different cuvettes Place the cuvettes one after another into the colorimeter that had been calibrated Record the transmittance for both cultivar solution for 12 seconds and record the results as trial 1 and 2 Repeat steps 33-38 for each cultivar Carrying out the Red-ox titration Titrate pre-prepared iodine solution against samples of ascorbic acid extracted from each vegetable: Make new samples of cultivar filtrate as outlined by steps 20 31 Add the 100 ml of the cabbage filtrate solution with the unknown concentration of ascorbic acid, to a 150 ml Erlenmeyer flask Carefully Titrate  [16]  the pre-prepared iodine solution  [17]  to this analyte drop by drop until the end point, a bluish-black colour that persists after 30 seconds of swirling, is reached Repeat this experiment at least thrice; to obtain three different measurement that should agree with each other within 0.1 ml average the three results obtained Steps 40 to 44 have to be repeated for every cultivar filtrate Record all your results Table 18 Averages for all trials and final average No of moles of AA present in 100ml of aqueous potassium permanganate Average % transmittance recorded by colorimeter in trial 1 (+/- 0.01%) Average % transmittance recorded by colorimeter in trial 2 (+/- 0.01%) Average % transmittance of trials 1 and 2 -used for calibration chart (+/- 0.01%) Cultivar of Brassica oleracea Average % transmittance recorded by colorimeter in trial 1 Average % transmittance recorded by colorimeter in trial 2 Average % transmittance of trials 1 and 2 used for calibration chart Estimation for Mg of ascorbic acid in 100g of Broccoli: Number of moles = 0.00048 moles Concentration of ascorbic acid = 0.0048 mol dm-3 (L-1) Number of moles = Concentration Volume Number of moles = 0.0048 0.1 = 0.00048 moles Thus both graphs show same data, I shall use transmittance vs. Moles graph from now on as this way it is quicker to calculate the mass of ascorbic acid per 100g of the relevant cultivar of Brassica oleracea. Number of moles = 0.00048 moles Mass = Number of moles Mass of one moles (Mr) Mass = 0.00048 176.12 =0.08454 g/100ml =0.08454 g/100g =84.54mg of AA in 100g of broccoli (+/- 1.04%) Estimation for Mg of ascorbic acid in 100g of Cauliflower: Number of moles = 0.00023 moles Mass = Number of moles Mass of one moles (Mr) Mass = 0.00023 176.12 = 0.04051 g/100ml = 0.04051 g/100g = 40.51mg of AA in 100g of cauliflower (+/- 2.17%) Estimation for Mg of ascorbic acid in 100g of Cabbage: Number of moles = 0.00014 moles Mass = Number of moles Mass of one moles (Mr) Mass = 0.00014 176.12 = 0.02466 g/100ml = 0.02466 g/100g (+/- 3.57%) = 24.66mg of AA in 100g of cabbage Amount of iodine solution titrated into Broccoli cultivar before end-point is reached (+/- 0.05ml) Amount of iodine solution titrated into Cauliflower cultivar before end-point is reached (+/- 0.05ml) Amount of iodine solution titrated into Cabbage cultivar before end-point is reached (+/- 0.05ml) Trial 1 49.00 28.00 21.00 Trial 2 51.00 25.00 16.00 Trial 3 50.00 28.00 20.00 Averages 50.00 27.00 19.00 Facts to bear: Molar ratio of iodine to ascorbic acid is 1:1; ascorbic acid + I2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2 Ià ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + dehydroascorbic acid Concentration of iodine solution is 0.01 mol L-1 Mr of Ascorbic acid for the purpose of this experiment is rounded to 176.12 g mol-1 It is assumed that 100 ml = 100g End point is where blue colour persists for more than 30 seconds Broccoli: On average 50 ml of iodine was used until end point reached No of moles = Volume concentration No. Of moles of iodine used = 0.050 0.010 = 5.0 10-4moles of iodine solution used Since ratio is iodine to ascorbic acid is 1:1 number of moles of ascorbic acid present in solution is equal to iodine used in titration. Number of moles of ascorbic acid present in 100 ml solution of broccoli juice = 5 10-4moles Mass = Number of moles Mr Mass of ascorbic acid present in 100 ml of broccoli juice solution = 5 10-4moles 176.12 = 0.08806g/ 100ml = 88.06 mg of AA in 100g of broccoli(+/- 0.10%) Cauliflower: On average 27 ml of iodine was used until end point reached No of moles = Volume concentration No. Of moles of iodine used = 0.027 0.010 = 2.7 10-4moles of iodine solution used Mass = Number of moles Mr Mass of ascorbic acid present in 100 ml of cauliflower juice solution = 2.7 10-4moles 176.12 = 0.04755g/ 100ml = 47.55 mg of AA in 100g of cauliflower (+/-0.19%) Cabbage: On average 19 ml of iodine was used until end point reached No of moles = Volume concentration No. Of moles of iodine used = 0.019 0.010 = 1.9 10-4moles of iodine solution used Mass = Number of moles Mr Mass of ascorbic acid present in 100 ml of cabbage juice solution = 1.9 10-4moles 176.12 = 0.03346g/100ml = 33.46 mg of AA in 100g of cabbage (+/-0.26%) Concluding Investigation The point of this investigation was to explore the following research question: How far do colorimetric readings agree with the results acquired through red-ox titration, a means of volumetric analysis, for the amount, in mg, of ascorbic acid in 100g of 3 different cultivars of Brassica oleracea obtained from a local supermarket? Before assessing the proximity of the two sets of results obtained, I have provided a set of literature values to help determine not only the accuracy of each individual experiment but also to eventually determine which of the two procedure delivered more promising results. Value of ascorbate in 100g of raw cabbage: 36.60 mg (20% refuse)  [18]   Value of ascorbate in 100g of raw broccoli: 89.20 mg (39% refuse)  [19]   Value of ascorbate in 100g of raw cauliflower: 48.20 mg (61% refuse)  [20]   Surprisingly the experimental values for both experiments werent too far from the literature values provided above. Through colorimetry means it was found that 24.66 mg of ascorbic acid was to be found in the 100 gram assay of cabbage. As for the results obtained through iodometry it was found that the 100 g sample of cabbage consisted of 33.46mg. From the data collected it is evident that the iodometric means of analysis was more effective in determining ascorbate amount in cabbage as it returned a value that was 91.42% of the literature value whereas the colorimetry means returned a value that was 67.38% of the literature value. More significantly the error percentage concerning the cabbage was relatively lower for the iodometric titration than the error percentage for the Colorimetry based values, +/-0.26% and +/-3.57% respectively. The two aforementioned trends; difference between literature and experimental values and error percentage was similarly evident for both the other cul tivars. Iodometry returned a value of 47.55mg/100g of cauliflower assay with an error percentage of +/- 0.19% and by means of colorimetry a lower value of 40.51mg/100g was obtained with a higher error percentage of +/- 2.17%. Finally the broccoli assay too returned values that fit the aforementioned trend. The experimental values derived through colorimetry suggested a typical 100g assay of broccoli contains 84.54 mg of ascorbate with an error percentage of +/-1.04%. The Iodometric experiment returned a value in close proximity to the literature value; the results suggested that a typical 100g assay of broccoli may contain 88.06mg of ascorbic acid with a minimal error percentage of 0.10%. Through the data provided above one could superficially suggest that the redox titration involving iodine and ascorbic acid has much better served the purpose of determining ascorbic acid quantities in the cultivars of Brassica oleracea than using colorimetry to track the redox reaction between KMnO4 and ascorbic acid. Though this seems to be the case it is important to highlight the factors that could have affected the reliability of both experiments. The following variables were controlled: Source of cultivars Amount of cultivar in each assay Equal amounts of sulphuric acid used in all assays All assays were equally heated The results of two separate redox reaction was being measured in both experiments The means of extracting vitamin C out of the cultivars Yet it was not possible to control all the variables. One should primarily note how vitamin C is not equally displaced throughout a species of vegetable or fruit or any other source. Therefore the conjecture stated above about reliability of both the investigations holds true only if the following is assumed; vitamin C is equally present throughout all the cultivars of Brassica oleracea used. Practically speaking this was not the case as the iodometry experiment was carried out before the colorimetry thus leaving the cultivars more exposed to atmospheric oxidation thus in general there would be less ascorbic acid in the samples of cultivar mixed with KMnO4 than in the samples upon which iodine was titrated on. Furthermore the quantities of refuse with our experiments were inconsistent unlike that of the generalised literature values, though not calculated it was evident that our primitive school based techniques led to much more refuse than the stated amounts of the literature values . This applies foremostly to the cabbage, from which it was the hardest to retain an assay from and thus had a refuse of much higher than 20%. Inconsistent refuses wouldve have meant that the ascorbic acid extracted is not representative of the full 100g assay. One should also take account of the fact that atmospheric oxidation is inconsistent and irregular, because the experiments lasted over days. This could explain the lower values obtained for the longer lasting colorimetry investigation. The length of this investigation means that the sample solutions of vitamin C used to create the calibrated graph were sure to have lost vitamin C, despite being placed in a fridge; this questions the reliability of our calibrated graph and furthermore explains why the first investigation returned lower values of ascorbic acid in the 100g assays. Another problem with the colorimetry experiment was the fact that we used KMnO4 solution, which is generally contaminated with MnO2. The MnO2 as sugge sted earlier on in the investigation leads to false drops therefore leading once again to a questionable calibrated graph which has a general inward inclination thereof giving lower experimental values for ascorbate concentrations. The MnO2 induced drops basically lead to varying readings from the colorimeter which made it difficult to produce an accurate calibrated chart. Furthermore KMnO4 has the tendency to react with contaminants found in water due to its oxidative properties, thereby further discrediting the calibration curve made. Another major uncertainty was my use of iodine for the redox titration, not only did I not control the oxidising agent but iodine is evidently not specific enough to estimate amount of ascorbic acid in vegetable cultivars. This is because there are other reducing agents such as uric acid in broccoli, which interfere with the titer values. Since ascorbic acid is not the only one responsible for reducing iodine to iodide ions the assumed end point is q uestionable. This further suggests the higher values for vitamin C amount found through iodometry and explains why the results are so accurate relative to the literature values. There are several other uncertainties that one could consider such as the errors with the equipment, the loss of vitamin C whilst extracting it from the various cultivars and so forth yet they do not make a difference as both experiments are exposed to these uncertainties and thus in effect they cancel out and can be ignored. We have assessed the flaws in each of the means of analysis and taking all aspects into consideration i find the permanganate and vitamin C redox reaction tracked by a colorimeter a better method. Fitstly because we are not relying on anindicator, permanganate is an indicator itself, and the concentration does not deteriorate if well stopped in amber bottles whereas concentrations of iodine dramatically deteriorate overtime. Furthermore it seems the flaws with this investigation are more technical in nature and can be m

Alchemy :: essays research papers

Alchemy, ancient art practiced especially in the Middle Ages, devoted chiefly to discovering a substance that would transmute the more common metals into gold or silver and to finding a means of indefinitely prolonging human life. Although its purposes and techniques were dubious and often illusory, alchemy was in many ways the predecessor of modern science, especially the science of chemistry. The birthplace of alchemy was ancient Egypt, where, in Alexandria, it began to flourish in the Hellenistic period; simultaneously, a school of alchemy was developing in China. The writings of some of the early Greek philosophers might be considered to contain the first chemical theories; and the theory advanced in the 5th century BC by Empedocles—that all things are composed of air, earth, fire, and water—was influential in alchemy. The Roman emperor Caligula is said to have instituted experiments for producing gold from orpiment, a sulfide of arsenic, and the emperor Diocletian is said to have ordered all Egyptian works concerning the chemistry of gold and silver to be burned in order to stop such experiments. Zosimus the Theban (about AD 250-300) discovered that sulfuric acid is a solvent of metals, and he liberated oxygen from the red oxide of mercury. The fundamental concept of alchemy stemmed from the Aristotelian doctrine that all things tend to reach perfection. Because other metals were thought to be less "perfect" than gold, it was reasonable to assume that nature formed gold out of other metals deep within the earth and that with sufficient skill and diligence an artisan could duplicate this process in the workshop. Efforts toward this goal were empirical and practical at first, but by the 4th century AD, astrology, magic, and ritual had begun to gain prominence. A school of pharmacy flourished in Arabia during the caliphates of the Abbasids from 750 to 1258. The earliest known work of this school is the Summa Perfectionis (Summit of Perfection), attributed to the Arabian scientist and philosopher Geber; the work is consequently the oldest book on chemistry proper in the world and is a collection of all that was then known and believed. The Arabian alchemists worked with gold and mercury, arsenic and sulfur, and salts and acids, and they became familiar with a wide range of what are now called chemical reagents. They believed that metals are compound bodies, made up of mercury and sulfur in different proportions. Their scientific creed was the potentiality of transmutation, and their methods were mostly blind gropings; yet, in this way, they found many new substances and invented many useful processes. >From the Arabs, alchemy generally found its way through Spain into Europe.

Nike Business Analysis

IV. Marketing strategy As a leading athletic brand in the world, much of Nike’s success can be attributed to its shrewd marketing strategy. As reported in its 2009-2010 Annual report, because NIKE is a consumer products company, â€Å"the relative popularity of various sports and fitness activities and changing design trends affect the demand for our products†. Therefore, Nike must â€Å"respond to trends and shifts in consumer preferences by adjusting the mix of existing product offerings, developing new products, styles and categories, and influencing sports and fitness preferences through aggressive marketing†.In fiscal year of 2009, Nike’s demand creation expense, which consists of advertising and promotion expenses, including costs of endorsement contracts, grossed about $2,351. 4 (million dollars). In comparison with fiscal year of 2008, even the company had taken actions to reduce spending across nearly all demand creation related activities, Nikeâ €™s demand creation expense increased 3% during fiscal 2009. One of the most visible marketing strategies of Nike is favorable brand image, which is associated with a distinctive logo and the advertising slogan, â€Å"Just do it. To help market their products, Nike has successfully developed and is currently deploying a promotional approach in which Nike â€Å"contract[s] with prominent and influential athletes, coaches, teams, colleges and sports leagues to endorse our brands and use our products, and they â€Å"actively sponsor sporting events and clinics†. For example, Nike has a number of famous athletes that serve as brand ambassadors such as: -Michael Jordan: in 2007, the Jordan brand, now a separate Nike subsidiary with its own building, grossed about $800 million. Tiger Woods: in 2000, Nike agreed to a multi-year deal with Woods worth a reported $105 million, extending an earlier multi-million dollar deal originated in 1996. Researchers have discovered the Marke ting mix 4Ps of Nike as following: * Products: Nike offers a wide range of products, range from shoe, apparel, equipment, and accessories to plastic product such as protective gear, hockey stick. * Price: Nike’s pricing is designed to be globally competitive to other brands. The pricing is based on the basis of premium segment as target customers.As a brand, Nike commands high premiums. * Place: Nike sells its product to about 20,000 retail accounts in the U. S. and in almost 200 countries around the world. * Promotion: Nike has a number of famous athletes that serve as brand ambassadors and Nike â€Å"actively sponsor sporting events and clinics† V. Social responsibility Nike, as revealed in FY 07-09 CR report, has a long history of engagement in communities around the world, investing in their backyards, key markets and manufacturing communities, which has clearly demonstrated its responsibility and commitment to the society.In FY07-09, Nike has directly invested in community $168. 8 million, and set the goal of $315 million of contributions for FY11. However, not only does Nike make financial contributions, but also the company involves contributing expertise and philanthropic activity to the community. Nike has developed two core approaches for community investment strategy, which includes three primary areas of focus: 1) A focus on creating new models to provide young people access to the power of sport (to unleash their confidence, leadership, health, education or employment). The Nike Foundation (separate nonprofit organization): focuses on adolescent girls in developing world as powerful agents of change in community, capable of unleashing a ripple effect that will change the course of poverty. * Innovating for better world through sport: Nike believes that every young person in the world should have access to sport and have partnered to develop and deliver programming activities. ) Leverage philanthropy mechanisms that enable our partner ships to scale without limits and create financial flows that ensure long-term success: * Brand and retail engagement: Nike leverages the power of its brands to connect with consumers on issues they care about deeply, manage a portfolio of investment in custom product lines, marketing campaigns, events and athlete engagement that have triggered donations from consumers, amplifying its initial investment. Nike, as shown in FY 07-09 CR report, is well aware of its environmental responsibility.Highly committed itself to creating extraordinary performance products for athletes while managing our business within nature’s limits, Nike developed its own North Star to define what sustainable products and a sustainable company would look like: * Healthy chemistry: Minimize the impact of product ingredients throughout the life cycle * Climate stability: Provide leadership toward climate stability * Water stewardship: Borrow water responsibly and return it clean to communities * Closing the Loop: Product creation to allow for material ecovery or safe return to nature * Thriving communities: Enable all our stakeholders along our value chain to meet their needs and lead fulfilling lives * Game changers: Educate, challenge and empower athletes to join the sustainability journey To achieve its goal, Nike has broken it into a number of smaller attainable steps. For example: * Product design: Internally, Nike mobilizes its human resources to influence the development of short-, mid-, and long rang projects that make progress towards closed-loop product.Externally, Nike actively posts unresolved problems and requests solutions from outside investors, universities and companies. * Climate and energy: As a co-founding member of Business for Innovative Climate and Energy Policy (BICEP), Nike and its partners have committed to strategic collaboration to push for US energy and legislation and rule making. * Water: Nike aims to contract with factories where water is abundant e nough to support it. Nike also collaborates with factories to improve efficiency of water-utilizing and encourages its suppliers’ adherence to high quality standards for all of their production.VI. Diversity and inclusion Nike, as shared in FY 07-09 Corporate Responsibility report, believes that Diversity and inclusion are key levers in continuing to drive creativity and innovation. Nike and its employees around the world emphasize the importance of diversity by four following reasons: 1) Diversity drives recruitment of the most dynamic people. 2) Diversity enriches the creativity and innovation that shapes the brand. 3) Diversity grows their competitive advantage. ) Diversity heightens the stature and belief in the brand within their culturally diverse consumer base. In 2006, Nike appointed its first VP of Diversity. In 2008, Nike formed a new global diversity and inclusion team focused on three areas: * Engaging employees * Providing business consultation * Developing innov ative tools, models and designs In order to create a culture of open innovation, Nike has developed diversity and inclusion strategy concentrates on three areas: 1) Focus on theFundamentals: Nike aims to cultivate an inclusive culture and inspire individuals and teams to find surprising connections and intersections that ultimately fuel business solutions and drive new innovation 2) Embrace a culture remix: In order to amplify creativity and innovation, Nike has created venues and environments for open dialogue that encourage diverse opinions and a multitude of perspectives. 3) External exchanges: Nike seeks to find and create unique and surprising combinations, intersections and connections within Nike, Inc. , and then share these insights with academia, industry and government.Diversity statistics: Gender, ethnicity and supplier 1) Gender diversity: Nike reports their global work force is half-male, half-female, and in overall management is 60% male and 40% female. 2) Ethnicity di versity: Nike reports 55% of its work force is Caucasian, 22% is African American, 13% is Hispanic, 9% is Asian/Pacific islander and 1% is American Indian. 3) Supplier diversity: Nike works with several national and regional partners on its suppliers effort, including the National Minority Supplier development council, the Oregon Association of Minority Entrepreneurs and the Women’s business Enterprise National Council.Bibliography: APA format NIKE Investor Relations (2009). NIKE, Inc. Corporate Responsibility Report FY2007-FY2009.. Beaverton, OR: Nike Inc.. Retrieved from http://www. nikebiz. com/crreport/ NIKE Investor Relations (2009). NIKE, Inc. Annual Report FY2000-FY2010. Beaverton, OR: Nike Inc.. Retrieved from http://media. corporate-ir. net/media_files/irol/10/100529/AnnualReport/nike-sh09-rev2/docs/Nike_2009_10-K. pdf DiCarlo, L. (2010). With Tiger Woods, it's Nike, Nike everywhere: Star pitches for apparel maker even when hawking other products.Forbes. Retrieved fr om http://http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/4554944/ Rovell, D. (2008). CNBC special report: Swoosh! Inside Nike: Michael Jordan continues to score points for footwear giant. CNBC. Retrieved from http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/23071595/ns/business-cnbc_tv// Cuizon, G. (2009). Audit on Nike's Marketing Strategies: The 4Ps – Product, Price, Place and Promotion . Suite101. Retrieved from http://corporate-marketing-branding. suite101. com/article. cfm/audit_on_nikes_marketing_strategies

Apollo 14 Mission Return to the Moon after Apollo 13

Anyone who saw the movie Apollo 13 knows the story of the  missions three astronauts battling a broken spacecraft to get to the Moon and back. Luckily, they landed safely back on Earth, but not before some harrowing moments. They never got to land on the Moon and pursue their primary mission of collecting lunar samples. That task was left for the crew of Apollo 14, led by Alan B. Shepard, Jr, Edgar D. Mitchell, and Stuart A. Roosa. Their mission followed the famous Apollo 11 mission by just over 1.5 years and extended its goals of lunar exploration. The Apollo 14 backup commander was Eugene Cernan, the last man to walk on the Moon  during  the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. Pictures of Apollo 13 Mission - View of damaged Apollo 13 Service Module from the Lunar/Command Modules. NASA Johnson Space Center (NASA-JSC) Apollo 14s Ambitious Goals The Apollo 14 mission crew already had an ambitious program before they left, and some of the Apollo 13 tasks were put on their schedule before they left. The primary objectives were to explore the Fra Mauro region on the Moon. Thats an ancient lunar crater that has debris from the giant impact that created the Mare Imbrium basin. To do this, they had to deploy the Apollo Lunar Surface Scientific Experiments Package or ALSEP. The crew was also trained to do lunar field geology, and collect samples of whats called breccia — broken fragments of rock scattered on the lava-rich plains in the crater.   The Apollo 14 landing site showing the Antares descent stage (where the astronauts were based during their mission), plus the paths their boots left in the regolith (surface material) as they walked over to deploy surface instruments. NASA Other goals were the photography of deep-space objects, lunar surface photography for future mission sites, communications tests and deploying and testing new  hardware. It was an ambitious mission and the astronauts had only a few days to accomplish a lot. Troubles on the Way to the Moon Apollo 14 launched on January 31, 1971. The entire mission consisted of orbiting Earth while the two-piece spacecraft docked, followed by a three-day  passage to the Moon, two days on the Moon, and three days back to Earth. They packed a lot of activity into that time, and it didnt happen without a few problems. Right after launch, astronauts worked through several issues as they tried to dock the control module (called Kitty Hawk) to the landing module (called Antares).   Once the combined Kitty Hawk and Antares reached the Moon, and Antares separated from the control module to begin its descent, more problems cropped up. A continued abort signal from the computer was later traced to a broken switch. Shepard and Mitchell (aided by ground crew) reprogrammed the flight software to pay no attention to the signal. Things then proceed normally until landing time. Then, the Antares landing module landing radar failed to lock onto the lunar surface. This was very serious since that information told the computer the altitude and descent rate of the landing module. Eventually, the astronauts were able to work around the problem, and  Shepard ended up landing the module by hand .   The Apollo 14 crew captain Alan Shepard Jr. stepped out onto the moon on Feb 5, 1971. NASA   Walking on the Moon After their successful landing and a short delay in the first extravehicular activity (EVA), the astronauts went to work. First, they named their landing spot Fra Mauro Base, after the crater in which it lay. Then they set to work.   The two men had a lot to accomplish in 33.5 hours. They made two EVAs, where they deployed their scientific instruments and collected 42.8 kg (94.35 pounds) of Moon rocks. They set the record for the longest distance traveled across the Moon on foot when they went on the hunt for the rim of the nearby Cone Crater. They came within a few yards of the rim but turned back when they started to run out of oxygen. Walking across the surface was quite fatiguing in heavy spacesuits! On the lighter side, Alan Shepard became the first lunar golfer when he used a crude golf club to put a couple of golf balls across the surface. He estimated that they traveled somewhere between 200 and 400 yards. Not to be outdone, Mitchell did a little javelin practice using a lunar scoop handle. While these may have been light-hearted attempts at fun, they did help demonstrate how objects traveled under the influence of the weak lunar gravity. Orbital Command While Shepard and Mitchell were doing the heavy lifting on the lunar surface, command module pilot Stuart Roosa was busy taking images of the Moon and deep-sky objects from the command service module  Kitty Hawk. His job was also to maintain a safe haven for the lunar lander pilots to return to once they finished their surface mission. Roosa, who had always been interested in forestry, had hundreds of tree seeds with him on the trip. They were later returned to labs in the U.S., germinated, and planted. These Moon Trees are scattered around the United States, Brazil, Switzerland, and other places. One was also given as a gift to the late Emperor Hirohito, of Japan. Today, these trees seem no different from their Earth-based counterparts. A Triumphant Return At the end of their stay on the Moon, the astronauts climbed aboard the Antares and blasted off for a return to Roosa and the Kitty Hawk. It took them just over two hours to meet up with and dock with the command module. After that, the trio spent three days on the return to Earth. Splashdown occurred in the South Pacific Ocean on February 9, and the astronauts and their precious cargo were hauled to safety and a period of quarantine common for returning Apollo astronauts. The command module Kitty Hawk that they flew to the Moon and back is on display at the Kennedy Space Center visitors center. Fast Facts Apollo 14 was a successful mission. It followed the Apollo 13 mission, which was cut short due to an explosion aboard the spacecraft.Astronauts Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchell flew the mission. Shepard and Mitchell walked on the Moon while Roosa flew the command module in orbit.Apollo 14 was the eighth mission to carry people to space in NASAs history. Sources â€Å"Apollo 14 Mission.†Ã‚  Desert Soil, LPI Bulletin, www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_14/overview/.Dunbar, Brian. â€Å"Apollo 14.†Ã‚  NASA, NASA, 9 Jan. 2018, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo14.html.Fox, Steve. â€Å"Forty-Four Years Ago Today: Apollo 14 Touches Down on the Moon.†Ã‚  NASA, NASA, 19 Feb. 2015, www.nasa.gov/content/forty-four-years-ago-today-apollo-14-touches-down-on-the-moon.