Diel Oxygen Measurements Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Diel Oxygen Measurements - Lab Report Example The water may be used in anthropogenic activity such as cooking and laundry. Measurement of diel changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations of freshwater systems is a widely accepted method of examining its productivity. It measures the dissolved oxygen concentrations twice a day (sunrise and sunset) to determine the gross productivity and respiration of the system (Van de Bogert, 2007). This is based on the carbon dioxide-acquiring and oxygen-producing photosynthesis, as well as the carbon dioxide-producing and oxygen-acquiring respiration. It is thus to be expected that the oxygen is highest during the sunset because the sunlight-requiring photosynthesis happened during the day, and lowest during the sunrise because photosynthesis does not occur to offset respiration (Hansom et al., 2003). In this light we may also expect that the surface is more productive at the bottom than at the surface, because it is more difficult for sunrays to hit deeper areas of the water. The objective of this experiment was to measure the productivity of aquatic systems in San Joaquin Marsh. Specifically, the researchers aimed to measured the dissolved oxygen concentration on the bottom and surface of the marsh, to calculate the productivity/respiratory ratio, and to assess whether the surface and bottom are autotrophic (productivity/respiratory > 1), or heterotrophic (productivity/respiratory Dissolved oxygen concentrations were measured at the surface and bottom of 8 different ponds on the site from Monday, 6:00 am sunrise and 7:45 pm sunset, to Tuesday, 6: 00 am sunrise. After data gathering, productivity/respiratory ratios were calculated as

Feminism In Elizabeth Barrett Browning English Literature Essay

Feminism In Elizabeth Barrett Browning English Literature Essay Through a detailed analysis of the writings of Victorian era female poet, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, this essay exposes the underlying themes of feminism in the authors works. The essay makes specific reference to two of Barrett Brownings most noteworthy poems, Aurora Leigh, a directly biographical piece, and The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, not officially an autobiographical piece. The essay reveals the theme of feminism through an examination of key aspects of Barrett Browning, including: the inner conflict resulting from the struggle to choose between female identity and accomplished author, the comparisons made between the oppressive practice of slavery and the poor treatment of Victorian women, and the importance of female autonomy prevalent in the poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning. All of these aspects come together together in the essay and Elizabeth Barrett Browning is successfully able to shed light on the oppressive treatment of women living in the Victorian period. Through her writings that often surround cruel female oppression, Victorian era poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning expresses feminist views in her works. Though often done subtly and indirectly, Barrett Browning uses her poems as a medium to express her aversion towards Victorian era female oppression that manifested itself in areas such as societal expectations and lack of independence. Despite the fact that few pieces by Barrett Browning are said to be truly biographical, one could suggest that numerous other poems by Barrett Browning depict her life as a woman living the Victorian period, as well as the lives of women in general living in the Victorian period. Through the analysis of two of Barrett Brownings works in particular, Aurora Leigh and The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, one can clearly see areas of Barrett Brownings own life being expressed in her writing. Aspects of Elizabeth Barrett Brownings life that are most visibly expressed in her writing include her inner turmoil between wanting to be a poet, and yet also wanting to maintain her femininity. Also visible is her condemning view of slavery, and how she likens the practice of slavery to the then treatment of women. And finally visible is her belief in the importance of women gaining independence from men. Through a detailed analysis of Barrett Brownings work with a particular focus on Aurora Leigh and The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, one can see how the works reflect Barrett Brownings own lifetime experiences and opinions regarding female rights. The works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning depict her aversion towards the misogynistic Victorian era society. Numerous works by Elizabeth Barrett Browning reflect the inner conflict that existed in her life. This inner turmoil is made very apparent in Aurora Leigh. Barrett Browning often depicts this conflict between wanting to become a poet and yet also wanting to possess femininity through a use of symbolism. As the scholar Dorothy Mermin observes, A woman who tried to be a poet within this structure would seem to be taking the part of a man (Mermin, 715). In saying this, Shires asserts the notion that Barrett Browning, and by transference Aurora, is torn between wanting to be a poet and still wanting to fulfill her role as the archetypical Victorian woman. The conflict between a woman wanting to assert herself in any male-dominated field while still maintaining a feminine identity would have been felt by many Victorian women, not just Elizabeth Barrett Browning as a poet. Barrett Browning uses figurative imagery to help convey this inner turmoil within both Aurora Leigh and also The Runaw ay Slave at Pilgrims Point. In the first book of Aurora Leigh, Barrett Browning writes of being sent to England to live at her aunts house, where she strives to lead the life of a proper lady that her aunt avidly advocates. However, when she describes the lifestyle of her aunt, she describes it as being caged: She had lived a sort of cage-bird life, born in a cage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I, alas, a wild bird scarcely fledged, was brought to her cage (p. 13). Cages, used to entrap animals, act as a universal symbol for oppression, entrapment, and control. In this way Barrett Browning suggests that the life that was regarded as being most fit for the Victorian era women was something she viewed as being oppressive and constricting. Furthermore, by using the word cage, Barrett Browning implies that the lives the women led were no better than an animals life. Through creating this image, Barrett Browning is making a statement about her rejection to conform and become, essentially, a domesticate d pet. The narrators rejection of her aunts lifestyle does not necessarily convey Barrett Brownings internal turmoil to the reader, but it does show her strong opinions against the expectations of Victorian women. As Barrett Brownings description of her upbringing with her aunt continues in book two of the poem, her inner conflict is again described through her use of symbolism. As the narrator celebrates her twentieth birthday, she makes the ultimate statement about her conflict between her identity as an artist and her femininity. She claims that she does not feel complete as either an artist or a woman, though the resources for her to achieve either one or the other are available to her. Woman and artist-either incomplete, both credulous of completion. There I held the whole creation in my little cup (p. 38). Clearly, Aurora feels she is incapable of becoming both a writer and a real woman in her Victorian society, and thus she feels she is forced to choose one or the other. By w riting that she held the whole creation in her teacup, a personal item, Barrett Browning implies that the personal decision was, literally, in her own hands. In this way, the teacup itself is symbolic of Auroras, and thus Barrett Brownings, inner conflict and moreover expresses just how ultimately personal the choice between artist and woman is. And as Zonana states, in the poem Aurora undergoes a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦transformation into a poet who reconciles being a woman with being an artist (Zonana, 242). Through these examples, it becomes visible to the reader that the use of figurative imagery in Aurora Leigh plays an important role in depicting the internal struggle within both Aurora Leigh and Elizabeth Barrett Browning with regards to personal identity. The theme of inner conflict is also visible in her poem The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point. Just as in Aurora Leigh, the conflicts present in the text can be related to Elizabeth Barrett Brownings own life and internal struggle. There are many parallels that can be drawn from the runaway slave within the text, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning. This provides reason to believe that the poem may purposely, yet indirectly, reflect some of the happenings that Barrett Browning experienced as a Victorian woman. This poem tells the story of a black female slave, a dichotomy to the proper white female discussed in Aurora Leigh, however The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point as well depicts Barrett Brownings struggle with her identity as an author and as a woman. In stanza eighteen of The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, the narrator observes the baby she bore her master. She cannot help but see her master when looking at her infant childs white face in contrast to her own: My own, own child! I co uld not bear to look in his face, it was so white. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ For the child wanted his liberty Ha, ha! He wanted the master-right (18, 1-7). The narrator continues: I saw a look that made me madà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The masters look, that used to fall on my soul like his lashà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦or worse! And so, to save it from my curse, I twisted it round in my shawl (21, 3-7). In a response to The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, Tricia Lootens states: Better, she suggests, to be whipped than to have ones soul (implicitly) stripped bare; better to kill ones child than to curse him. Even in violence, soul trumps flesh: classic EBB (Lootens, 497). Stated simply, Lootens asserts that in the work of Barrett Browning, the worth of ones soul is greater than ones flesh. Flesh is valueless without soul. Knowing the value that Barrett Browning places on the human spirit, these lines signify the authors turmoil. The narrator kills her own child children being a flesh embodiment of a womans femin inity to spare the childs spirit. In this way, the action of the runaway slave in Barrett Brownings writing represents the feelings of the author; the spirit, or the artistic desires of her spirit, is worth sacrificing the flesh, or her femininity, for. As the text progresses to stanza twenty-six, where the narrator describes the act of burying her child under nightfall: My little body, kerchiefed fast, I bore it on through the forest on: And when I felt it was tired at last, I scooped a hole beneath the moon. Through the forest-tops the angels far, With a white sharp finger from every star, Did point and mock at what was done. (26, 1-7) This passage exposes much more than just the notion that society will chastise the narrator for killing her own child, hence her burying under the cover of nightfall, but further that even the angels above with their white sharp fingers will blame or point and mock her for her act. Just as the angels in heaven harshly judge the narrator for killing her child, the Victorian society would judge Elizabeth Barrett Browning, or any Victorian woman, who shirked her stereotypical social responsibility as a woman. Another theme used by Elizabeth Barrett Browning to expose the ill treatment of Victorian era women is slavery. Elizabeth Barrett Browning was notoriously opposed to the slavery that existed during the Victorian period, and this is reflected in several of her works. Perhaps one of the factors that inspired this resentment towards the practice of slavery was a sense of understanding from Barrett Browning that developed from her experience with the oppression of Victorian women; the plight of slaves and women would have been felt similarly in the era. This may provide an explanation to Barrett Brownings focus on slavery she was able to sympathize. Within Aurora Leigh there are links made between the practice of slavery and female oppression. Dalley describes Aurora Leigh as being written with the purpose of denying Victorian era gender roles: EBB clearly conceived of Aurora Leigh as a challenge to the conventional tradition[s] governing womens behavior because it openly discusses the plight of women and calls for changes to existing laws governing marriage and property, and attitudes governing womens work for money (Dalley, 526). Within Aurora Leigh, the idea of slavery and its similarity to the oppression of women becomes most evident in book two. As Aurora describes to her cousin Romney why she denies the concept of marriage, the connection between slavery and female oppression becomes lucid: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Am I proved too weak to stand alone, yet strong enough to bear such leaners on my shoulder? Poor to think, yet rich enough to sympathise with thought? Incompetent to sing as blackbirds can? (p. 48). In this passage, Aurora appears to have some of the inferiorities that the oppressed blacks were thought to posses mental inferiority and weakness. By subtly making this correlation, Barrett Browning likens the oppressed woman to an oppressed slave. She suggests that a wife was to a husband as a slave was to a master. Both the woman and the slave required the s upposed superior man to compensate for their inherent shortcomings. This passage is important in that it depicts Barrett Brownings opinions towards slavery while also addressing her opinion of sexism, while effectively correlating the two. Later in the poem, again to Romney, Aurora states: We sew, sew, prick our fingers, dull our sight, Producing what? A pair of slippers, sir, To put on when youre weary-or a stoolTo tumble over and vex you . . curse that stool! Or else at best, a cushion where you lean (p. 206). Auroras statement directly draws a comparison between being a Victorian era woman and being a slave. Through Aurora, Barrett Browning suggests that a man does not desire a wife as an equal companion in life, but rather to act as an aid to him in his life, while the wife gains little from the marriage. This thankless job of assistance is also what was expected of slaves. Both act as a mere tool to facilitate a mans life. In this passage, Aurora recognizes that in her patriarchal society, women were little more than tools to convenience their husband. These words spoken by Elizabeth Barrett Browning show that women were capable of realizing that they were being wronged and taken advantage of, which meant that they were not as mentally incapable as they were portrayed and thought to be. And moreover, they liken the treatment that the Victorian era women faced to the unethical treatment of slaves. Through the fact that The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point centres on a female slave, there are many areas that display Barrett Brownings opinion towards the practice. However, in certain instances, Barrett Browning glorifies the choices made by the narrator which demonstrates her hatred for slavery, and further demonstrates that she desires to escape the slavery of her gender. In the final stanzas of the poem, the narrator describes that the men are hunting her, knowing they will soon capture her, she literally laughs at the thought of her own demise: My face is black, but it glares with a scorn which they dare not meet by day. Ha!-in their stead, their hunter sons! Ha, ha! They are on me-they hunt in a ring! Keep off! I brave you all at once (29-30, 6-3). In these lines, Barrett Browning conveys the absolute fearlessness and strength of the narrator. The tone of the passage, through its liberal use of punctuation and literal use of laughter, becomes excited and maniacal, and in a se nse seems to glorify the narrator and her defiance. Perhaps Barrett Browning created this effect of glorification of the narrator because she, as a woman, would want to see the narrator courageously defy and overcome her oppressors. By laughing in the face of her oppressors hunting her, the narrator can take control of the situation and remove any satisfaction that her killers may get from her death. After having killed her child, and now letting herself die, she will be reunited with her child in a place where racial or gender-based oppression does not exist. This implies the notion that by glorifying the narrator and her final actions in the closing of the poem, Barrett Browning suggests that the narrator, wronged as she may have been by the men, was not only able to overcome, but furthermore triumph over her lifes obstacles. This furthers the idea that Barrett Browning wishes to see the oppressed overcome their oppressors. Again, in the last stanza of the poem, Barrett Browning d epicts the narrator as bravely awaiting her death, I am floated along, as if I should die of libertys exquisite pain. In the name of the white child waiting for me in the death-dark where we may kiss and agree (36, 3-6). In writing these lines in such a way, Barrett Browning creates a seeming sense of duty in the narrator, suggesting that to defend ones position or gender should be honourable. By including the narrators jovial mood towards her demise, Barrett Browning makes the statement that the oppressed woman was able to take actions into her own hands, and by her dissatisfying reaction, rob her oppressors of any satisfaction. In this way, Barrett Browning glorifies the bold action of the narrator so as to glorify the action of opposing her oppressors. Through this poem, Barrett Browning not only demonstrates her opposition to slavery, she also demonstrates its relation to the treatment of women, suggesting that fighting against either is an honourable act. Finally, the theme of womens autonomy is prevalent in Elizabeth Barrett Brownings works. Womens independence is a central theme in Aurora Leigh and in fact, acts as a driving force in not only the actions of Aurora, but in Elizabeth Barrett Brownings own life. The desire for female autonomy is visible in Aurora Leigh when Aurora marks herself as a writer by crowning herself with ivy. As Aurora crowns herself, she discusses the need to prove herself worthy: The worthiest poets have remained uncrowned till death has bleached their foreheads to the bone; and so with me it must be unless I prove unworthy of the grand adversity, and certainly I would not fail so much. (p.38). Although there is not explicit mention of what the grand adversity is, it is very likely the mere fact that Aurora, and of course Barrett Browning herself, were females in a misogynistic period. As previously mentioned, women in the Victorian era would be little more than the chattels of their husbands. For a Victori an woman to become a prominent poet, she would need to break free of the constraints placed on her by a misogynistic society. It is evident that both Aurora and Elizabeth Barrett Browning felt that in order to achieve their desires, they had to overcome the domineering masculine influence in their lives. This theme of female independence is visible in Aurora Leigh as Aurora explains to her cousin, Romney, why she cannot marry him. You misconceive the question like a man, who sees a woman as the complement of his sex merely. You forget too much that every creature, female as the male, stands single in responsible act and thought (p. 51). In writing this passage, Barrett Browning states that women, just as much as men, possess individual thought and actions, despite the opposing opinion of Victorian men such as Romney who believe that women are simply extensions of their husbands. Barrett Browning suggests that if women are not granted even the most basic of liberties from their patriarchal society, then they will never achieve independence unless they boldly act out against their Victorian gender constraints. While the theme of female independence is slightly less conspicuous in The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, it is nevertheless alluded to in several instances. The mere fact that the poem centres on a female slave who yearns for freedom from her master instils in the piece an intrinsic theme of the need for female sovereignty. In many lines of the poem, the narrator discusses the oppression of the black slaves and especially black, female flaves, and through this description links to the oppression of Victorian period women can be drawn, as both are treated as chattels of their master. Despite the fact that the narrator is talking about black slaves in the following passage, parallels can be drawn to oppressed females: But we who are dark, we are dark! Ah, God, we have no stars! About our souls in care and cark our blackness shuts like prison bars. (6, 1-4). In this excerpt, the narrator explains that due to their blackness, or their skin colour, they are automatically regarded as be ing lesser than their white masters. Of course, not only did the black slaves have no control over their skin colour, but furthermore it is irrelevant to their mental and physical capabilities as a human. Just as the slaves were judged as being inferior because of their race, women were also assumed to be ultimately inferior to men based on their gender, an inherent and irrelevant feature of their identity. The femininity of women was falsely equated to, by men, frivolous unintelligence. Elizabeth Barrett Browning would have been familiar with this entrapment that she wrote about, not only from experiencing life as a Victorian woman, but also due to her chronic illness that often limited her actions. The concept of female independence becomes visible again as the poem nears the end: I am not mad: I am black. I see you staring in my face-I know you, staring, shrinking back, Ye are born of the Washington-race, and this is the free America: (32, 1-5). By mentioning George Washington an d the free America, Barrett Browning draws explicit attention to the point that America is a country founded on freedom, and it becomes emphasized just how horribly the slaves, and in a similar way women, were treated in the gloriously free country, and just how un-free their lives really were. In this passage, Barrett Browning insinuates that no nation can ever be free until all of its people are free. Within The Runaway Slave at Pilgrims Point, just as the slaves were oppressed by their masters in the free country of America, Elizabeth Barrett Browning was oppressed by her civilized yet patriarchal, Victorian society. Through indepth analysis of key themes in the poetic works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning with a particular focus on the autobiographical Aurora Leig and non-biographical The runaway slave at Pilgrims Point, it becomes lucid that Barrett Browning uses her writing to express her own experiences and opinions towards the unjust Victorian treatment of women. Firstly, these experiences and opinions are displayed through Barrett Brownings use of interal struggle between the identity of poet and woman. Also, she expresses herself through her fierce opposition to slavery visible in both poems. Finally she achieves this purpose through the importance of individual independence that is portrayed in her poems. When all of these elements of Elizabeth Barrett Brownings poetry are examined individually, it is clear that Barrett Browning uses her poetry as a medium to express her experiences and opinions towards the ill treatment of Victorian era women.

Frankenstein :: essays papers

Frankenstein Mary Shelleyîâ€" ¸ Frankenstein is filled with various underlying themes, the crux being the effect society has on The Creatureîâ€" ¸ personality. In fact, the ethical debate concerning biotechnological exploration into genetic cloning has created a monster in itself. A multitude of ethical questions arises when considering the ramifications of creating a genetically engineered human being. Does man or science have the right to create life through unnatural means? Should morality dictate these technological advancements and their effects on society? The questions and concerns are infinite, but so to are the curiosities, which continue to perpetuate the advancement of biotechnological science. In literature, Mary Shelleyîâ€" ¸ Frankenstein serves as bio-ethical exhortation for today îâ€" ¸ technological advances in genetic cloning. Mary Shelleyîâ€" ¸ Frankenstein provides a clear distinction between the theoretical grandeur of manîâ€" ¸ ability to scientifically author life and the stark reality, which it encompasses. Shelley prophetically illustrates some of the potential hazards of breaking through the barrier that separates man from God. Her insight allows the reader to trace these reputations through Victor Frankenstein, the monster, and eventually society. The character of Victor Frankenstein illustrates the path of destruction scientists can create when ignoring their moral community. Victor was so impassioned with his life îâ€" ¸ work that he has lost all soul or sensation but for this one pursuit. Frankensteinîâ€" ¸ blinding ambition prevented him from seeing the potential consequences of his actions until it was too late. The first sign of Victorîâ€" ¸ fatal flaw of egotism is that he forgets his bond to nature and to the people he loves. î˜ £ new species would bless me as its creator and source; many happy and excellent natures would own their being to me.? (933). His absence of moral judgement is the catalyst for what becomes the demise of the creature, society and ironically himself. It would be years before Victor fully realized that his neglect of moral obligation to the creature and society had unleashed a hideous monster that would eventually destroy his society as revenge for the monsterîâ€" ¸ sense of abandonment. î˜ « shuddered to think that future ages might curse me as their pest, whose selfishness had not hesitated to buy its own peace at the price, perhaps, of the existence of the whole human race.? Frankenstein led by the desire to widen human knowledge finds that fulfillment of his lofty ambition has brought only a curse to mankind.

Extract especially dramatic Essay

How does Miller make this extract especially dramatic and how does this scene affect the rest of the play?  In this extract we see a crucial change in all the principle characters of the first act. This is facilitated by Miller’s detailed use of stage direction, which he also used to ensure that this scene was acted correctly on stage. The scene is rife with tension and pathos. Its almost as if this scene were a trial of strength to put the three men is some sort of hierarchy. Whereas before in the play Eddie hardly talked to Rodolpho (and if he did it was usually through Marco), here we see him directly confront Rodolpho. Eddie saw the opportunity to let some of his aggression out when the topic of boxing was brought up. So he hits Rodolpho whilst ‘teaching’ him to box. Up till this point Rodolpho had seemed to be innocently taking Eddie’s lead but I think that there was something about Rodolpho’s response after Eddie hit him that was quite hostile, ‘No, no, he didn’t hurt me’. This was a response to Eddie’s question, so putting him in the third person seems to separate him from the scene, there seems to be a momentary status reversal between the two characters. All the other characters seem to take Rodolpho’s lead, as they are all aware of Eddie’s strange behaviour. Beatrice, initially supporting Eddie realised that the situation had gone a bit out of hand when Rodolpho was hit and pulls Eddie back into his chair, saying, ‘that’s enough Eddie’, fully aware that Eddie had far more grave intentions for Rodolpho than he let on. Catherine had read the situation before it had begun and was clearly anxious for Rodolpho’s safety as the stage direction states, ‘[with beginning alarm]’. Then we see at the end of the passage how Marco also changes. He sees Eddie’s action as hostile and so he subtly reminds Eddie with the lifting of the chair that he is stronger than Eddie and that he would win a fight if Eddie attempts to show further aggression towards his brother. So it would appear at the end of act one that Eddie has managed to isolate himself from his family and the two brothers. One has to feel a sense of Pathos for Eddie, as he is confused by his own feelings and unsure of how to act. Eddie’s insecurity has been prominent in this act and this scene seems to highlight it, almost as if the audience are being made aware of Eddie’s state at this point perhaps to explain his actions later in the play.

Investigation Into Waste Management on Construction Sites

American Journal of Applied Sciences 2 (5): 980-984, 2005 ISSN 1546-9239 Â © Science Publications, 2005 Investigation into Waste Management on Construction Sites in South Western Nigeria 1, 2 O. O. Akinkurolere and 3S. O. Franklin 1 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria 2 China University of Geosciences, 430074, Yujia Shan, Wuhan Hubei Province, People’s Republic of China 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ibadan, NigeriaAbstract: This study aims to report investigation into the problem of waste management on construction sites in South Western Nigeria and to unveil inherent dangers material wastage poses to the construction Industry. In the construction industries, materials are very vital in building sites, but not all the materials delivered are used for the purposes for which they have been ordered and the subsequent disappearance of these materials constitutes part of the waste.The primary research instruments used was the questionnaire which contained varied questions on material wastage and management. The investigation revealed that material wastage brings about additional cost to the construction project as well as a reduction in the profit of the contractor, considering the cost of storing and transporting construction waste along with the loss of revenue from not reclaiming waste. Also, most waste that occurs at construction sites is due to poor management and lack of awareness of effective waste management.The study finally recommends that recycling and reusing of construction waste is a viable option in construction waste management and that material wastage can be reduced by giving incentives to the workers for better handling of materials and by having trained personals to supervise the works. Key words: Construction Waste, Waste Recycling, Waste Reusing INTRODUCTION inadequacies of the materials such that at the end not all the materials procured an d delivered to sites are used for the purposes for which they are ordered. This excessive loss in materials is what is called Waste[4].Material wastage is any extra cost over and above the materials used, plus their handling as contained in the estimated price for the job[5,6]. Building Research Establishment[7] divides material wastage into four distinct categories namely design waste, taking off and ordering waste, supply waste and finally, contract waste. This study will help to determine. Effective waste management is of growing significance for the construction industry. Adding the cost of storing and transporting construction waste, along with the loss of revenue from not reclaiming waste materials, it makes financial sense for onstruction companies take action to minimize waste. The use of recycled aggregate derived from concrete rubble in the production of ready mixed concrete was demonstrated in the example of an office building, erected in Darmstadt, Germany[1]. Generally, the economic interest in re-using or recycling building materials is governed by three factors listed below[2, 3]: * * * * * * * The availability and thus the cost of natural or new building materials. The availability of disposal space, the tipping charges and the taxes for dumping. The transportation cost. The inherent dangers material waste poses to the onstruction industry. Ways of minimizing waste on construction sites. Ways of keeping proper site records for accountability purposes. Finally, recommendations were made on effective waste management on construction sites. The significance of the Research: In the past, most especially in some parts of Nigeria, practices to reduce, reuse or recycle waste did not achieve widespread implementation for a number of reasons. Firstly, people were not aware of benefits of minimizing waste, nor had any experience of reusing recycled or reclaimed materials. In addition some even believed that the cost f reusing or recycling these wastes wa s prohibitive. Materials, as one of the resources employed by the construction industry, pass through a number of processes before they are finally incorporated in the construction. These processes bring about the 980 American J. Applied Sci. , 2 (5): 980-984, 2005 This research is meant to reveal various losses arising from material wastage and to propose measures that will enhance the judicious use of clients' money coupled with an overall effect on cost savings on a construction project, as well as lead to increase profit and time saving on the construction period.It will also serve as a form of enlightenment to the general populace particularly those in the construction industry. Table 1: Percentage Cost of Materials to the Cost of the Project Options Number of response % Response Below 20% 2 3 20-30% 2 3 31-40% 4 6 41-50% 16 22 Above 50% 47 66 METERIALS AND METHODS Table 2: Methods for Keeping Store Records Methods No. of occurrence % Response Using trusted people 2 3 Stock bal ance sheet 3 4 Storage in computer 3 4 Bin card system 7 10 Daily stock taking 7 10 Log book 9 13 Stock card system 15 21 No response 25 35 This research relies on primary data, which was btained using questionnaires having both closed and open-ended (un coded) questions; containing varied questions on material wastage and management. It was directed at the respondents relevant to the study including engineers, architects, quantity surveyors, builders and contractors to identify the various sources of waste encountered on construction sites and how these wastes can be minimized and managed. The data obtained were analyzed using tables and statistical indices. The scope of this research is limited to firms in Lagos, Oyo, Ogun, Ekiti and Ondo States. Lagos is considered to be the nerve of commercial activities inNigeria and so the relative volume of construction work there is very high. Other states were chosen to complement that of Lagos. Furthermore, a sizeable number of all firms c hosen to constitute the sample for this research were undertaken one form of construction or the other in different states of the country, therefore information gathered can be broadly applied to the entire nation. Table 3: Sources of Waste on Building Sites Sources of waste Response % Response Wrong use 6 8 Mismanagement of materials 8 11 Demolition waste 10 14 Conversion waste 14 20 Pilfering and theft 15 21 Negligence 16 23 Fixing 7 24 Wrong specification 21 30 Intra – site transit 22 31 Transport and delivery to site 27 38 Site storage 29 40 RESULTS Inventory Tools: This aspect shows the importance of materials in building projects and also highlights the need for their effective management and control. Table 1 shows the percentage cost of materials to the total cost of the project. The table shows that 66% of the respondents quoted that the percentage cost of materials to the cost of the project is above 50%, closely followed by 22% who believed that the percentage cost of materials to the cost of the project is between 41and 50%.Also, it can be observed from Table 2 that a sizeable number of firms did not respond to the method used for keeping store records, while 21% indicated that use of a stock card system is the best, 10% believed that the bin card system is the best. Furthermore 10% believed in the use of daily stocktaking, 13% expressed confidence in the use of the log book. On responses on the sources of waste, 40% of the firms agreed that the major source of waste was due to the adoption of a storage system; this was closely followed by 38% of the firms who agreed that the major source of waste was due to transport and delivery to site.Other sources were also given and the results are presented in Table 3. Other sources of waste pointed out by the respondent but not shown in Table 3 include residual wastes, overestimation of quantities required and the use of unskilled laborers. As for the incentives for good handling and minimum waste, 41 % of the firms agreed that there were incentives for good handling and minimum waste while 59% suggested that there were no incentives. The incentives identified by the firms are listed in Table 4. Also, Table 5 presented methods of minimizing waste on sites. Other methods of minimizing wastes on sites roposed by some firms are given in Table 6. Material Utilization: The section presents the methods used by firms to minimize waste on sites, sources of wastes and incentives for good handling and minimum waste. It also considered various means of reusing and recycling wastes on construction sites. Materials Stock Control and Storage: This section gives an analysis of the data collected on material stock control and storage before its movement to the site for utilization. 981 American J. Applied Sci. , 2 (5): 980-984, 2005 Table 8: Origin of Materials Supplied to Site Table 4: Incentives Identified by 41% of the FirmsIncentives for good handling and minimum waste * Commendation of hard working and careful workers in kind and in cash * Supervision and effective monitoring are experts. * Giving bonus to workers. * Regular payment of worker's salary as time due and provision of medical care for workers in case of accident * Increasing salary when deemed fit. * Promoting good handlers. * Using the right specifications. * Approving more overtime hours. * Good design, detailing and erection practice all lead to waste minimization, these should be rewarded periodically in cash or kind. * Avoid overloading trucks. Options ResponseDirect purchase from Suppliers 50 From the company’s central store 17 The company usually contracts it out 28 Others – Table 9: Responsibility for Damaged Materials in Transit Option Response % Response The Supplier 53 75 The Client 8 11 (a) and (b) 10 14 Table 10: Usage of Plants on Construction Sites Option Response % Response Wheelbarrow 68 96 Dumper 30 42 Forklift 12 17 Cranes 25 35 Hoist 15 21 Conveyors 8 11 Table 5: Methods of Minimizing Waste on Sites Options Response Locating a store very close to the Working area. 29 Sending workers on formal training. 4 Supervision by engineers or Trained personnel. 40Good site accounting. 39 % Response 41 6 Material Purchase and Delivery: On the origin of materials supplied to site, 70% of the respondents obtained their materials direct from the suppliers, while 39% usually contracted the supply out. Others (24%) purchase before use and store it central store. The results are presented in Table 8. Concerning the time of placing an order of materials prior to use, responses showed that 32% of the firms placed their orders less than two weeks before they were required, 27% placed theirs between three and four weeks while the remaining 41% usually placed immediately stock becomes less.Meanwhile, on responsibility for damaged materials in transit, the majority of the firms claimed that the suppliers were liable; they held the opinion that the materials were still in pos session of the suppliers as long as they had not arrived on site. However, a minority of firms, about 11% had a different opinion as indicated in Table 9. 56 55 Table 6: Summary of Methods of Minimizing Wastes on Sites Method of minimizing waste identified by respondents * Monitoring the supply of materials and goods to prevent damages. * Close supervision and monitoring by experts. * Provision of both day and night security. Effective planning before the commencement of any project. * Materials should be supplied to specifications and detailed drawings should be followed to the letter. * Conversion of wasted materials to other use. * Introducing incentives to make workers happy * Ensuring adequate storage facility for construction materials on site. Table 7: Materials Storage System Option Response Centralized system 36 Decentralized system 17 Mixed system 18 % Response 70 24 39 – Materials Handling: On the usage of plants on construction sites, Table 10 showed that 42% of t he firms utilized dumpers, 17% employed forklift among other options.Other equipment indicated by the respondents included concrete mixers, loaders, excavators, head pains, shovels, diggers, vibrators and tipper lorries. Meanwhile, the question on whether fragile materials should be given special attention and handling or not, 59% of the respondents opined that special attention and handling was paid to these materials, while 18% of the firms surveyed indicated that no such care was essential. The remaining 23% of the firm surveyed did not give any response, some of the methods (suggested by the respondents) of storing and handling fragile materials are listed in Table 11. % Response 51 24 25On material storage system, Table 7 shows that 51% of the firms used a centralized system of storage, while 25% used a mixed procedure, that is, the combination of the centralized and decentralized systems. On methods used in material stocktaking, most firms used a periodic stock checking proced ure, about 85%, while the remaining 15% used perpetual inventory that is, continuous stock checking. 982 American J. Applied Sci. , 2 (5): 980-984, 2005 * Table 11: Suggested Methods of Storing and Handling Fragile Materials Methods * Fragile materials should be stored separately * Supervision and handling of materials should be done by experts Materials should be stacked on pallets, with little or no access * Fragile materials should be packed amongst saw dust * Stack such materials between shock absorbing materials * Careful offloading during delivery * Materials should be stored in special packs during transporting to prevent damage. * Materials should be stored away from point of heavy traffic, passer-by’s and workers. * Adhere to the manufacturer’s instructions. * Allow only single handling. * Store in central store and carry directly to the site when needed. * * * * Cost of materials when compared to the total cost of the project may well be over 50%, hence ateri als should be judiciously utilized and handled. Manual labor is more extensively employed in most of the construction firms surveyed than the use of mechanized labor. The major sources of waste that was revealed was due to improper site storage, although a high proportion of firm surveyed also believed that the transportation and delivery of materials to the site were important considerations as well. Giving incentives to workers for good handling of materials greatly minimizes waste on construction sites as well as trying to make the workers have a sense of belonging in the firm. The most effective way of minimizing waste on ites is to have experts to supervise the work. From the above conclusion, the following are recommended: * DISCUSSION If materials handling and control are to mean anything, high control needs to be exercised between the parties involved. Mechanization of the movement of materials on the construction sites offer advantages in both cost and time saving, but from the present study, manual labor is far more extensively used in comparison to plants. Usage of manual labor for materials handling increases the level of waste that occur on sites and this can be readily observed at construction sites from the way materials litter such areas.If was observed from the study that some construction companies do not give special attention to the handling of their fragile materials, whereas in developed countries such items are treated with care because they are liable to damage quite easily[6]. The supervision of fragile materials is to be done by experts and only single handling should be allowed. More so, some of the firms studied are not in the habit of giving incentives for good handling and minimum waste of materials, this ought not be in if incentives are given to the workers, they will feel more responsible for the materials and they will take extra are in handling such items. Finally, from the research, it is obvious that nearly all construction firms in Nigeria are yet to start recycling or reusing waste materials on site. Giving contractors the option of reusing or recycling waste will determine the economic feasibility of such operations. * * * * Construction waste recycling and reusing is a viable option in construction waste management and from further studies or research, laboratory experiments can be performed on some construction wastes like broken aggregates or demolished concrete to establish the feasibility of this option[8]. It would be worthwhile extending the nvestigation to other building materials like timber, iron-mangery, broken glass, sanitary wares and similar items. The use of computers should be adapted for storing records on construction sites and for construction planning. There should be awareness programs for all construction companies on construction waste management through reuse and recycling. Also formal education should be given to storekeepers and the foremen on effective materials handling and systems. The federal government should come up with a policy on construction waste management which may include introduction of heavy tipping charges n construction wastes (particularly those that can be reused or recycled) and taxes for dumping or disposing wastes carelessly. This research is focused on the construction industry in terms of waste utilization and management. However, the methodology adopted here could similarly be extended to other fields in the context of engineering. 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